Fisheries and the ocean economy

Introduction

Our oceans cover nearly three-quarters of the earth’s surface, and produce more than half the oxygen in the atmosphere. Some 97% of our water is here. It is a major influence on weather systems and home of a vast array of marine life – from whales to phytoplankton. Over 3 billion people depend on fish as part of their diet, and about 600 million livelihoods “depend at least partially on fisheries and aquaculture” (FAO, 2022, cited by the World Bank, 2023).
This chapter is in the “Issues” section for a simple reason: our oceans are in crisis. They have been mismanaged, or at best, not been managed at all, having been overfished and altered by pollution.

The 14th of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) initiated by UN member states is to “Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development” (UN, 2015).

Measures that will turn the tide, so to speak, include:

• The setting of quotas on the amount of fish caught. Fish stocks are being taken from the oceans at unsustainable levels.
• Adopting measures to combat illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing. It reduces fish stocks, lowers local catches and harms the marine environment.
• Establishing networks of marine parks/ocean sanctuaries in which/near which activities like building and mining are prohibited.

Find updates on progress (or lack thereof) in the articles under the “Websites and publications” heading.

International business environment
Local business environment
Small-scale fisheries
National strategy and government contacts
Role players
Websites and publications

International business environment

The UN Convention on the Law of the Sea lays out the rules of how far out a nation’s zone of influence extends beyond its shores. About two-thirds of the world’s oceans lie beyond national jurisdiction, and up to now there was no treaty protecting the “high seas”. In 2023, after nearly two decades of negotiations, 193 nations agreed on a High Seas Treaty at the Intergovernmental Conference on Marine Biodiversity of Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction (BBNJ).

• The Benguela Current Commission is a multi-sectoral inter-governmental initiative of Angola, Namibia and South Africa. See www.benguelacc.org.
• United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Clean Seas Campaign on Marine Litter www.cleanseas.org
• Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) www.ccamlr.org
• The Committee on Fisheries (COFI) exists as a subsidiary body of the FAO (see below).
• Deep Sea Conservation Coalition https://savethehighseas.org
• Find both “Aquaculture” and “Fisheries” under the themes option at www.fao.org, website of the UN’s Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO). Download the latest biennial “State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture (SOFIA)” on the website.
• GLOBAL DIALOGUE on Seafood Traceability https://traceability-dialogue.org/
• Greenpeace International www.greenpeace.org
• Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA) – www.iora.net/en
• International Association of Fish Inspectors (IAFI) – https://iafi.wildapricot.org
• The International Maritime Organization is a specialised agency of the United Nations responsible for regulating shipping. See www.imo.org.
• International Ocean Institute – www.ioinst.org
• Marine Stewardship Council www.msc.org Certifying sustainable fishing
• Read about Regional fisheries management organisations (RFMOs) at https://ec.europa.eu/fisheries/cfp/international/rfmo_en
• South East Atlantic Fisheries Organization (SEAFO) www.seafo.org/
• Stop Illegal Fishing https://stopillegalfishing.com
• www.unesco.org, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) website
• Find World Economic Forum reports like Ending Illegal Fishing: Data Policy and the Port State Measures Agreement at www.weforum.org.
• World Fishing & Aquaculture – www.worldfishing.net
• WorldFish is an international, nonprofit research organization that harnesses the potential of fisheries and aquaculture to reduce hunger and poverty  – www.worldfishcenter.org

Find international articles and updates under the last heading on this page.

Africa

The African Union declared 2015 to 2025 as the Decade of African Seas and Oceans, and the blue economy is now officially referred to as the new frontier of Africa’s Renaissance.

Some articles …

• Okafor-Yarwood I. & Onuoha F. 2023, April 26. “Africa’s oceans are being protected to serve the interests of big foreign corporates”. The Conversation. Available at https://theconversation.com/africas-oceans-are-being-protected-to-serve-the-interests-of-big-foreign-corporates-201325
• March A. & Failler P. 2022, June 30. “How marine fisheries can add millions of tonnes to Africa’s catch”. The Conversation. Available at https://theconversation.com/how-marine-fisheries-can-add-millions-of-tonnes-to-africas-catch-184957
• Okafor-Yarwood I. 2022, February 15. “African countries must protect their fish stocks from the European Union – here’s how”. The Conversation. Available at https://theconversation.com/african-countries-must-protect-their-fish-stocks-from-the-european-union-heres-how-177095
• Okafor-Yarwood I. & Allison E. 2021, November 19. “African marine rules favour big industry, leaving small-scale fishers in the lurch”. The Conversation. Available at https://theconversation.com/african-marine-rules-favour-big-industry-leaving-small-scale-fishers-in-the-lurch-171829
• Donnenfeld Z. 2020, January 7. “Over-exploitation of Africa’s fisheries: Not enough fish in the sea”. Daily Maverick. Available at www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-01-07-over-exploitation-of-africas-fisheries-not-enough-fish-in-the-sea/

 

South Africa: imports and exports

The Fish SA brochure “Fishing for a sustainable and equitable future” at http://fishsa.org provides overviews of this industry’s exports.

Local business environment

Poaching, specifically of rock lobster and abalone, remains a threat.

Further reference:

• Reporter. 2023, June 8. “Government committed to ensuring ocean sustainability”. SA News. Available at www.sanews.gov.za/south-africa/government-committed-ensuring-ocean-sustainability
• Find the briefing by the Department of Forestry, Fisheries and Environment (DFFE) on the state of South African fisheries (2023, March 28) at https://pmg.org.za/committee-meeting/36636/.
• Vrey F. 2022, September 20. “South Africa is surrounded by sea but doesn’t have a plan to protect it: three steps to get one”. The Conversation. Available at https://theconversation.com/south-africa-is-surrounded-by-sea-but-doesnt-have-a-plan-to-protect-it-three-steps-to-get-one-190678
• The Fish SA brochure “Fishing for a sustainable and equitable future” at http://fishsa.org provides overviews of this industry. It looks at South Africa’s export markets, and then zooms in on squid, hake, Cape horse mackerel, lobster and other species through the lens of the different affiliate associations of Fish SA.

Small-scale fisheries

Livelihoods and food security in South Africa’s coastal provinces are intimately connected to small-scale fisheries. How does one balance restorative justice for communities discriminated against before 1994, be fair to established fishing companies and keep in mind sustainability levels? The Policy for the Small-Scale Fisheries Sector in South Africa (SSF policy) and the Marine Living Resources Act (MLRA) and its Amendment Act provide the framework to achieve transformation whilst looking after the country’s marine resources.

ABALOBI, “small-scale fisher” in isiXhosa, is the name given to the mobile app suite which aims to enable small-scale fishing communities to be incorporated into information and resource networks, which include fishery monitoring, maritime safety, local development and market opportunities. Restaurants source a diversity of fish directly from small-scale fishers through the ABALOBI MARKETPLACE app, and this significantly increases a fairer price for fish sold by small-scale fishers. See http://abalobi.info.

National strategy and government contacts

The Oceans Economy Master Plan (OEMP) is “to advance stabilisation revival and growth of the sub-sectors within the ocean economy to ensure increased contribution to job creation, GDP, economic recovery and potential growth” (DFFE, 2023a; PMG, 2023a).

Operation Phakisa Aquaculture Lab Initiative’s Progress: (i) In total 45 projects are producing farmed aquatic animals as part of Operation Phakisa Oceans economy. (ii) Small-scale aquaculture implementation plan was finalised.(iii) Signed MOU in 2022 with Department of Small Business Development (DSBD, including Sefa and SEDA) for the support towards small-scale aquaculture (DFFE, 2023; PMG, 2023a).

 

Further reference:

• The DFFE report on the state of South African fisheries (2023, March 28) at https://pmg.org.za/committee-meeting/36636/.
• Read about the OEMP’s progress and expected deliverables in the DFFE’s progress report (2023, February 21) (PMG, 2023a) at https://pmg.org.za/committee-meeting/36358/.

 

Government role players

• Department of Forestry, Fisheries and the Environment (DFFE) www.dffe.gov.za Find “Oceans and Coasts” under “Branches” on the website.

 

Further reference:

Associations

• Fish South Africa is an umbrella body that includes among its members companies like Premier Fishing, I&J and Ocean Fishing. Associations affiliated to Fish SA are: South African Squid Management Industrial Association (SASMIA), South Coast Rock Lobster Industry Association (SCRLIA), West Coast Rock Lobster Association (WCRLA), South East Coast Inshore Fishing Association (SECIFA), South African Deep-Sea Trawling Industry Association (SADSTIA), South African Hake Longline Association (SAHLLA), South African Midwater Trawl Association (SAMTA), South African Tuna Association (SATA), Large Pelagic Small Medium & Micro Enterprises Association (LPSMME), South Africa Tuna Longline Association (SATLA) and South African Patagonian Toothfish Industry Association (SAPTIA).

Training and research

• Find information on the National Certificate: Fisheries Observation: Inshore and Certificate: Fisheries Observation: Deep Sea on the website.

Companies involved

• Some consultants can help with accessing the different financial incentives from government for Aquaculture Development and Enhancement Programme (ADEP)

Websites and publications

Visit the websites listed earlier on this page.

• African Journal of Marine Science. Find issues at www.tandfonline.com/loi/tams20.
• Find the notes on marine fish at www.aquarium.co.za/species/.
• Call the ARC’s Agricultural Engineering at 012 842 4017 or email iaeinfo [at] arc.agric.za for the leaflets “Agro-processing of Marine Foods (Fish products)”.
• Find the latest WWF-SASSI Retailer/ Supplier Participation Scheme report to ensure a sustainable seafood supply chain at www.wwf.org.za.
• Contact the Environmental Monitoring Group (EMG) for documents and DVDs like “The Sea Gives Me Hope – Artisanal fishers in changing times (2013, 4 min) – A brief look at some of the issues facing small-scale fishers and their concerns about climate change”. See www.emg.org.za.
• Download “Octopus Factory Farming: A Recipe for Disaster” at www.ciwf.org/resources/reports-position-papers-briefings/octopus-factory-farming-a-recipe-for-disaster/
• Find the WWF SA‘s Oceans facts and futures: Valuing South Africa’s ocean economy and Oceans facts and futures: 2018 Ocean Scorecard at www.wwf.org.za.
• Benkenstein, A. 2015. “Achieving an Inclusive Blue Economy for Small-scale Fishers: Recommendations to the South African Parliament”. Governance of Africa’s Resources Programme: Policy Briefing 128. Johannesburg: South African Institute of International Affairs.
• Daniels, A., Gutierrez, M., Fanjul G., Guerena, A., Matheson I. and Watkins, K. 2016. Western Africa’s missing fish: the impacts of illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing and under-reporting catches by foreign fleets. London: Overseas Development Institute.  Available at www.odi.org/publications/10459-western-africas-missing-fish-impacts-illegal-unreported-and-unregulated-fishing-and-under-reporting
• Ocean & Coastal Management journal. See www.journals.elsevier.com/ocean-and-coastal-management
• Find details of the annual Fishing Industry Handbook – South Africa, Namibia & Mozambique, and the Maritime Handbook of Southern Africa Fishing Industry Handbook at www.gwarmanpublications.co.za.

 

Some articles

• Find blogs on Agribook.Digital like “June 5: A new marker” and “The value of the African fish”.
• Isaacs L. 2023, May 17. “Jobs at Lucky Star factory on West Coast at risk because of amended regulations”. Eye Witness News. Available at https://ewn.co.za/2023/05/17/jobs-at-lucky-star-factory-on-west-coast-at-risk-because-of-amended-regulations
• Petrik L. & Ojemaye C. 2022, May 29. “Marine life in a South African bay is full of chemical pollutants”. The Conversation. Available at https://theconversation.com/marine-life-in-a-south-african-bay-is-full-of-chemical-pollutants-182791
• Reporter. 2022, April 20. “Unlocking the potential of the oceans economy”. SA News. Available at www.sanews.gov.za/south-africa/unlocking-potential-oceans-economy
• Reporter. 2021, December 13. “Government accepts recommendations for West Coast Rock Lobster fishery”. SA News. Available at www.sanews.gov.za/south-africa/government-accepts-recommendations-west-coast-rock-lobster-fishery
• Rice W. 2021, November 21. “How South Africa can get communities involved in conserving coastal and marine areas”. The Conversation. Available at https://theconversation.com/how-south-africa-can-get-communities-involved-in-conserving-coastal-and-marine-areas-170294
• Majola G. 2021, June 17. “Trust asks SA to extend protection of the ocean”. IOL. Available at www.iol.co.za/business-report/economy/trust-asks-sa-to-extend-protection-of-the-ocean-04f4a28c-6901-4cd5-aee2-b7f971c3218b
• Fisher S. 2021, May 10. “Black gold: A fresh approach needed to tackle SA’s illegal abalone trade”. Eye Witness News. Available at https://ewn.co.za/2021/05/10/black-gold-a-fresh-approach-needed-to-tackle-sa-s-illegal-abalone-trade
• Fisher S. 2021, March 23. “Shell games: Unravelling the complex web around abalone poaching”. Eye Witness News. Available at https://ewn.co.za/2021/03/23/shell-games-unravelling-the-complex-web-around-abalone-poaching
• Burger S. 2021, January 18. “DEFF issues yellow alert for harmful West Coast red tide, partners prepare for red alert”. Engineering News. Available at www.engineeringnews.co.za/article/deff-issues-yellow-alert-for-harmful-west-coast-red-tide-partners-prepare-for-red-alert-2021-01-18
• Mabuza L. 2020, August 7. “OPINION: To turn SA into a maritime powerhouse will require more women to participate”. Business Report. Available at www.iol.co.za/business-report/opinion/opinion-to-turn-sa-into-a-maritime-powerhouse-will-require-more-women-to-participate-dc7e7d4c-4b28-461d-943a-26a7c81df1e8
• Arnoldi, M. 2019, May 27. “DEA declares 20 marine protected areas”. Engineering News. Available at www.engineeringnews.co.za/article/dea-declares-20-marine-protected-areas-2019-05-27
• Reporter. 2019, April 9. “SA makes its mark in fisheries economy”. SA News. Available at www.sanews.gov.za/south-africa/sa-makes-its-mark-fisheries-economy
• Booysens, J. 2019, March 8. “SA deep-sea trawling companies losing just 10% fishing quota spells catastrophe”. Business Report. Available at www.iol.co.za/business-report/companies/sa-deep-sea-trawling-companies-losing-just-10-fishing-quota-spells-catastrophe-19736949
• Reporter. 2018, September 28. “History made as SA’s first small-scale fisheries co-ops launched”. SA News. Available at www.sanews.gov.za/south-africa/history-made-sa%E2%80%99s-first-small-scale-fisheries-co-ops-launched
• Harvey, K. 2018, July 8. “Community’s dedication helps turtles thrive”. Farmer’s Weekly. Available at www.farmersweekly.co.za/animals/game-and-wildlife/community-dedication-helps-turtles-thrive
• Molewa E. 2018, June 24. “Healthy oceans mean a healthy marine economy, which SA sorely needs”. Business Day. Available at www.businesslive.co.za/bd/opinion/2018-06-24-edna-molewa-healthy-oceans-mean-a-healthy-marine-economy-which-sa-sorely-needs/
• Reporter. 2017, April 13. “Keeping track of fish from sea to plate to keep illegally caught fish off store shelves”. BIZCommunity. Available at www.bizcommunity.com/Article/196/520/160515.html
• Dodds, C. 2017, February 14. “Lobster crash erodes West Coast way of life”. Bizcommunity. Available at www.bizcommunity.com/Article/196/628/157628.html

 

INTERNATIONAL

• Find the latest The Sustainable Development Goals Report which measure progress in achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by 2030. SDG 14 is Life below water.
• Read about the Port State Measures, a binding international law and “one of the most efficient – and cost effective – ways to fight IUU fishing”, at www.fao.org/news/story/en/item/417286/icode/.
• The Eco Friendly Ocean Guide: Ways to Sustain Oceans and Sealife  – “Here are some of the key things that you need to know about ocean sustainability and how you can help”.
• Read Greenpeace reports like (December 2019) In Hot Water: The Climate Crisis and the Urgent Need for Ocean Protection.
• Watch the FAO video “Take a minute to think about the oceans”.
• See also the earlier “International business environment” heading.

Some articles …

• Reporter. 2023, October 23. “Surge of formal acceptances of Agreement on Fisheries Subsidies — entry into force closer”. World Trade Organisation Available at www.wto.org/english/news_e/news23_e/fish_23oct23_e.htm
• Jaynes C. 2023, August 4. “Global Sea Surface Temperatures Reached New Record High in July”. EcoWatch. Available at www.ecowatch.com/ocean-temperature-record-2023.html
• Jaynes C. 2023, June 29. “Deep-Sea Mining Could Cause 25x the Biodiversity Loss of Land-Based Mining, Report Warns”. EcoWatch. Available at www.ecowatch.com/deep-sea-mining-ocean-biodiversity-loss.html
• Bloomberg. 2023, April 4. “Companies can vie to mine the deep sea starting in July”. Daily Maverick. Available at www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2023-04-04-companies-can-vie-to-mine-the-deep-sea-starting-in-july/
• Kim J. & Treisman R. 2023, March 7. “What to know about the new U.N. high seas treaty — and the next steps for the accord”. NPR. Available at www.npr.org/2023/03/07/1161196476/un-high-seas-treaty-international-waters
• Perry C. 2022, July 15. “Mercury in Fish: How Did It Get There and What To Do About It?” Anglers. Available at https://anglers.com/news/mercury-in-fish
• Martin N. 2022, June 7. “Alien species are moving across oceans faster: climate change will accelerate this”. The Conversation. Available at https://theconversation.com/alien-species-are-moving-across-oceans-faster-climate-change-will-accelerate-this-184415
• Gentle L. 2021, September 16. “Five things we learned about the state of the planet at the world’s biggest meeting of biodiversity experts”. The Conversation. Available at https://theconversation.com/five-things-we-learned-about-the-state-of-the-planet-at-the-worlds-biggest-meeting-of-biodiversity-experts-167751
• Duong T. 2021, April 2. “Netflix’s ‘Seaspiracy’: Viewers React to Commercial Fishing Industry Exposé”. EcoWatch. Available at www.ecowatch.com/commercial-fishing-netflix-documentary-2651331648.html
• Denny E. 2021, January 14. “100 Companies Dominate the Ocean’s Economy, Study Finds”. EcoWatch. Availabe at www.ecowatch.com/companies-dominating-ocean-economy-2649942383.html
• Nairn C. 2020, December 9. “Global Treaty Needed to Halt Deep Sea Mining, Greenpeace Investigation Concludes”. EcoWatch. Available at www.ecowatch.com/deep-sea-mining-greenpeace-2649430652.html
• Climate Nexus. 2020, December 3. “14 Countries Commit to Ocean Sustainability Initiative”. Ecowatch. Available at www.ecowatch.com/ocean-sustainability-initiative-2649122791.html
• The Economist. 2020, October 22. “Illicit fishing devastates the seas and abuses crews”. Available at www.economist.com/leaders/2020/10/22/illicit-fishing-devastates-the-seas-and-abuses-crews
• Trethewey L. 2020, June 30. “Earth’s final frontier: the global race to map the entire ocean floor”. The Guardian. Available at www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/jun/30/earths-final-frontier-the-global-race-to-map-the-entire-ocean-floor
• Volcovici V. 2020, June 5. “Trump opens Atlantic sanctuary to commercial fishing”. Reuters. Available at www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-environment-oceans/trump-plans-to-open-atlantic-sanctuary-to-commercial-fishing-sources-idUSKBN23C26N
• Silver J., Acton L., Campbell L. & Gray N. 2020, June 4. “How a global ocean treaty could protect biodiversity in the high seas”. The Conversation. Available at https://theconversation.com/how-a-global-ocean-treaty-could-protect-biodiversity-in-the-high-seas-139552
• McVeigh K. 2020, April 27. “Silence is golden for whales as lockdown reduces ocean noise”. The Guardian. Available at www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/apr/27/silence-is-golden-for-whales-as-lockdown-reduces-ocean-noise-coronavirus
• Lombrana L. 2020, April 18. “With fishing fleets tied up, marine life has a chance to recover”. IOL. Available at www.iol.co.za/business-report/international/with-fishing-fleets-tied-up-marine-life-has-a-chance-to-recover-46840265
• Carrington D. 2020, April 1. “Oceans can be restored to former glory within 30 years, say scientists”. The Guardian. Available at www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/apr/01/oceans-can-be-restored-to-former-glory-within-30-years-say-scientists
• McKie R. 2020, January 25. “Race to exploit the world’s seabed set to wreak havoc on marine life”. The Guardian. Available at www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/jan/25/race-for-seabed-threat-to-oceans
• Boffrey D. 2019, October 3. “Ocean cleanup device successfully collects plastic for first time”. The Guardian. Available at www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/oct/03/ocean-cleanup-device-successfully-collects-plastic-for-first-time
• In Deep Water: The Emerging Threat Of Deep Sea Mining, a report by Greenpeace can be read at www.greenpeace.org/new-zealand/publication/deep-water-the-emerging-threat-of-deep-sea-mining/
• View the beautiful undersea photos by Roger Grace (Greenpeace) at www.theguardian.com/environment/gallery/2019/jul/23/powerful-undersea-images-photographer-roger-grace-in-pictures
• Rosane, O. 2019, May 31. “UK Government Adds New Marine Protected Areas Nearly 8x the Size of Greater London”. EcoWatch. Available at www.ecowatch.com/uk-government-marine-protected-areas-2638603959.html
• Associated Press. 2019, April 14. “Seychelles president issues underwater plea to protect oceans”. The Guardian. Available at www.theguardian.com/world/2019/apr/14/seychelles-president-danny-faure-underwater-plea-protect-oceans
• Taylor, M. 2019, April 4. “Campaign to save oceans maps out global network of sanctuaries”. The Guardian. Available at www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/apr/04/campaign-to-save-oceans-maps-out-global-network-of-sanctuaries
• Carrington, D. 2019, March 4. “Heatwaves sweeping oceans ‘like wildfires’, scientists reveal: Extreme temperatures destroy kelp, seagrass and corals – with alarming impacts for humanity”. The Guardian. Available at www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/mar/04/heatwaves-sweeping-oceans-like-wildfires-scientists-reveal
• Carrington, D. 2018, July 26. “Almost all world’s oceans damaged by human impact, study finds”. The Guardian. Available at www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/jul/26/just-13-of-global-oceans-undamaged-by-humanity-research-reveals
• Kituyi M. & Thomson P. 2018, July 13. “90% of fish stocks are used up – fisheries subsidies must stop emptying the ocean”. World Economic Forum. Available at www.weforum.org/agenda/2018/07/fish-stocks-are-used-up-fisheries-subsidies-must-stop/
• Carrington, D. 2018, July 9. “One in three fish caught never makes it to the plate – UN report”. The Guardian. Available at www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/jul/09/one-in-three-fish-caught-never-makes-it-to-the-plate-un-report
• The Economist. 2018, July 5. “Can eco-tourism help save the ocean?” The Economist Films. Available at www.woi.economist.com/protectors-misool
• Carrington, D. 2018, January 4. “Oceans suffocating as huge dead zones quadruple since 1950, scientists warn”. The Guardian. Available at www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/jan/04/oceans-suffocating-dead-zones-oxygen-starved
• “Precision extinction: AI-piloted drone ships take illegal fishing to new – and even more unsustainable – levels” is one of the “Ten Global Risks in Terms of Likelihood and Impact” of 2018, compiled by the World Economic Forum.
• Find “3 Ways UN Leaders Can Restore the World’s Oceans” at www.ecowatch.com/3-ways-un-leaders-can-restore-the-worlds-oceans-1882101204.html
• Busby, M. 2017, November 25. “Mexico creates vast new ocean reserve to protect ‘Galapagos of North America'”. The Guardian. Available at www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/nov/25/mexico-creates-vast-new-ocean-reserve-to-protect-galapagos-of-north-america
• Carrington, D. 2017, December 5. “Oceans under greatest threat in history, warns Sir David Attenborough”. The Guardian. Available at www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/dec/05/oceans-under-greatest-threat-in-history-warns-sir-david-attenborough
• Gruby, R., Campbell, L, Fairbanks and Gray, N. 2017, November 24. “To Succeed, Large Ocean Sanctuaries Need to Benefit Both Sea Life and People”. Ecowatch. Available at www.ecowatch.com/ocean-sanctuaries-sea-life-people-2512185926.html